I realized that my education was incomplete through the California education system regarding civil rights. I was aware of civil rights because of Watts setting themselves on fire, and periodic media attention of events happening elsewhere in the United States, but not the down and dirty.
One windy, chilly, rainy day we took a drive back into Clinton, our mission was to visit the Green McAdoo Cultural Center.
The schoolhouse sits atop a hill once known as Freedman's Hill, later to be known as Foley Hill. The original school was built by the Freedman's Bureau after the Civil War, but was destroyed by fire. The current school building was built as part of the "New Deal" project in 1935, a two room schoolhouse, named Clinton Colored School. In 1947 the school was renamed Green McAdoo, a former buffalo soldier, landowner, and employee of the Anderson County Courthouse. The school taught grades one through eight.One of the Classrooms
One of the School Years Students
Once visitors get up the ramp, they're graced with a beautiful sculpture of the 12 students: Bobby Cain, Maurice Soles, JoAnn Allen Boyce*, Regina Turner Smith*, Minnie Ann Dickey Jones*, Robert Thacker, Alvah J. McSwain Lambert*, Gail Ann Epps Upton*, Theresser Caswell, Ronald Hayden, Alfred Williams, and William (Bill) Latham. (* married names)The self guided tour started with a brief video about events around desegregation of Tennessee public schools. The 1954 Supreme Court ruling that "separate and equal facilities" did not apply to education, desegregation was necessary. The upcoming change was not to be an easy one, especially with segregationists spouting their garbage about how separation is what God planned. Here is a quick look at what was spread in the South.
it was the segregationist's belief that mixing races would destroy the purity of "white blood". Unfortunately this still goes on today, look at all the "white supremist" groups. What I found sad was that a religious group, America Baptist Association was for segregation, and its leaders had unanimously voted for it.
Warning for those not religious... I am going to spout a little scripture as it pertains to the story.
One of the verses the segregationists were spouting was Genesis 11:8, stating that god created the races distinct from one another, scattering the races over the face of the earth at a time when they attempted to integrate, and become one. Let's look at Genesis 11:8: So from there the Lord scattered them throughout the earth, and they stopped building the city. The scripture was taken out of context. I am going to start way back in verse 11:4: And they said, "come, let's build a city and a tower with its top in the sky. Let's make a name for ourselves; otherwise, we will be scattered throughout the earth."v5 Then the Lord came down to look over the city and the tower that the humans were building.v6 The Lord said, "if they have begun to do this as one people all having the same language, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. v7Come, let's go down there and confuse their language so that they will not understand one another's speech." v8 So from there the Lord scattered them throughout the earth, and they stopped building the city.
In preparation for attending Clinton High School, the twelve students visited Highlander Folk School, which was founded in 1932, and was an integral part of the civil rights movement.
Here is a photo of the twelve students and Rosa Parks. The school held a series of workshops to prepare participants in the upcoming transition which sprouted from the civil rights movement. Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights leaders also attended the workshops and training sessions.
In August of 1956 the town of Clinton Tennessee was resigned to the fact that their high school was going to be the first school integrated in the state, and that is when trouble blew into town. That August, the twelve black student registered for school.
Several segregationist rabble-rousers, Frederick John Kasper and Asa Carter showed up that August, to create hate and discontent among the local residents. Kasper was the self-elected Executive Secretary of Seaboard White Citizen's Council of Washington D.C., and Carter was the Executive Secretary of the North Alabama's White Citizen's Council. Because of these two men, protestors came from all over the state, inundating this little town.
Let's get a feel for these two men. Here is a comment from Kasper : "We must keep the Negros out. One court is higher than the Supreme Court, and that's the will of the people." Carter wasn't far behind in his comments: "They don't build a Federal government big enough to integrate my daughter with negros."
Here is a little history on Kasper that the residents of Clinton didn't know... but the FBI knew. He owned a book store in Greenwich Village, New York. In New York he had black friends, and his interracial romances could be found in Jet Magazine, a black magazine. That is Kasper under the arrow. Yet a year later from that photo, he is in the South spewing hatred against the black citizens.
Asa Carter was a strong influential speaker, with the ability to create hatred at the drop of a hat. He went on to become the speech writer for George Wallace, who later became governor of the state of Alabama.
Back to the twelve courageous students. The students marched into the school together, past all the protestors, some of which were KKK members brought in for intimidation. The teachers and principal made every effort to help their new students feel comfortable. The principal, D.J. Brittain, took a lot of flack holding the position that his school was going to obey the law passed down by our government, and because of that, his life was threaten many times at work and home. One of the students, Jo Ann Allen, said of the teachers and principal: "I give credit to the teachers and Mr. Brittain for making us feel as safe as possible while we were in the school". One of the things that the twelve remember the most was Principal Brittain's encouraging words: "You have all shown great courage".
The first day went without incident, and as usual, the media jumped the gun on the situation, claiming: Clinton High School is Integrated without Fuss. Getting to class meant that they had to pass the gauntlet of protestors not only hurling insults, but objects too. The white students were being called "nigger lovers" as well. By the third day of integration, the tension had increased so much, the twelve students entered school through the side entrance. That day all the black students were escorted home because of the growing tensions.
People were coming from everywhere in the South to this little town to show their hatred. It got so far out of hand that the state Highway Patrol was called in.
on September 1, 1956, with ever growing tensions, came a need to create some kind of protection for the town, and a "Home Guard" of 40 men, was created. Even with the additional deputized men, the mobs were overpowering, fueled by the hate preached daily by Kasper and Carter. A quick summary of above:
5:30pm - citizens recruited and sworn in.
6:00pm - message to governor; Highway Patrol would be there by 7:15pm.
6:23 - first arrest.
7:00pm - second and third arrests.
7:00-8:00pm - crowds are building on sidewalks and flowing into streets.
8:10pm - 110 Highway Patrol arrive, led by Commander Greg O'Rear.
Greg O'Rear is the officer on the right, standing 6'8". He looked down on the angry mob, threw his shotgun over his shoulder, and said, "Boys, it's all over".
The call to the governor for assistance was heard, and on September 2, 1956, the National Guard was sent to Clinton to restore order. I added the year to the date to show how racism was still present in later years. Governor Clement's actions have never been forgotten.Courtesy of wikipedia.com
In 1957, the governor of Arkansas blocked the entrance to Central High School in Little Rock, preventing black students from entering. In 1963, governor George Wallace blocked two black students from entering the University of Alabama.
Because of hatred, the town of Clinton was locked down with tanks and armored personnel carriers rumbling through the streets, along with hundreds of other vehicles. The skies were patrolled by helicopter. If you were under the age of 21, your curfew was 7pm. The National Guard stayed for 10 days assisting the police in restoring order.
With the National Guardsman still present, school resumed on September 4th. Ten of the black students returned to school, and passed through the small group of hecklers under the scrutiny of reporters and photographers; school attendance was low that day. U.S. Marshall Frank Quarles stood on the front steps and read an injunction which prevented the interference of the integration of Clinton High school.
The take away I got regarding this whole situation was that the students, white and black, showed their willingness to accept the change, and yes there were a few whites that resisted. it was the adults that were the biggest problem... and they were suppose to be the example... they put a lot of undue pressure of the children to make the change.
The ability to change was evident in the actions of the student body. Kasper challenged principal Brittain to "Run the Negros off and resign". Brittain put it to a vote, if he did not receive 51% of the vote from the student body, he would resign. The student body responded with a resounding 100% backing of principal Brittain. There was also a secret ballot sent to the parents, and guess what, the vote was 447 to 6, in support of Brittain.
The abilities and the power of togetherness, allowed the Student Council to take on the White Citizens' Council. The Council was trying to pressure the Board of Education for the resignation of principal Brittain, saying they would present them with a 1,000 signature petition demanding his resignation. The Student Council had a secret plan to gain 1,000 signature to counter the Council's petition. As with most hot air, the White Citizens' Council failed to execute their threat.
The Student Council took it one step further. When Clinton High School was closed December 4th, the Student Council sent a written request to the Anderson County School Board to reopen the school and comply with the desegregation law. The Student Councils plan was to get the school reopened by December 10th.
Before they closed the school on December 4th, three white men, Sidney Davis, Leo Burnett, and Reverend Paul Turner, walked six of the twelve students to school that day. After they left the students at the school, Reverend Turner was attacked and beaten.
Courtesy of Life Magazine
Even after the beating his stand was firm, "There is no color line at the cross". It was his belief that all student had the right to an education. "The moral principle on which I take my stand is that if the Negro children decide to return to Clinton High School, they have the legal and moral right to attend without heckling or obstruction".
In the end, only two of the twelve graduated from Clinton High School, Bobby Cain and Gail Epps. Bobby graduated in 1956, and was the first black man to graduate from a desegregated school in the southern United States; Gail graduated the following year. When Bobby graduated, principal Brittain did not allow cameras in the gymnasium, to keep publicity to a minimum. The press did however catch up with Bobby after the ceremony, and questioned him, his comment, "It's been a tough year, and I wouldn't want to do it again. But I'm not sorry I went to Clinton High School".
Here are some other thoughts from Bobby Cain. "The thing that helped me the most was when I outran the track star, and people started talking about that as it mushroomed through the school, that I had beat him. Then the kids started talking to me".
Bobby also had an epiphany about his education. "It came to me for the first time that I had a right to go to school. I realized that it was those other people who were breaking the law, not me".
The final portion of the tour was a video presentation, lasting about an hour and a half. The video is an old presentation about Clinton, done by CBS in the 1960s.
Let's meet the twelve students that stepped into history.
Maurice Soles. His family moved from Alabama to Clinton, TN, attending Clinton High School, until he dropped out. He worked for a local company, and was married at eighteen. In 1965 he was drafted into the U.S. Army, and sent to Vietnam. Returning as a disabled veteran, he and his wife Lillie, moved to Arizona. He and Lillie have seven daughters and two sons, a gaggle of grandchildren, and great-grandchildren. Retired, they moved back to Clinton, where he now takes one day at a time, fishes, and enjoys all his grandchildren.
Alfred Williams. Alfred was the older brother of Maurice Soles. Alfred was a senior along with Bobby Cain, at Clinton High School. Life deals a different hand to each of us. Instead of graduating, he was expelled, for fighting with white boys, in defense of his younger brother. Today Alfred works at Clinton High School.
Gail Ann Epps. She was the first black female to graduate from a public desegregated school in the South. Following her graduation in 1958, she attended Tennessee State University at Nashville. Gail received her degree and returned to Clinton as a substitute teacher at the Green McAdoo School. She married and had children, and before her husband passed they raised one of their grandchildren. Gail still lives in Clinton.
Ronald Gordon "Poochie" Hayden. The nickname "Poochie" was given to him by his aunt. "Poochies" story is one of mixed emotions. He started school, but became seriously ill, diagnosed with a brain tumor. After several operations, he was left blind, and given a prognosis of two years to live. That did not deter him though, he went to The School for the Blind, in Talladega, AL. While at the school he met his future wife, and after graduation they moved back to Clinton. "Poochie" beat his two year prognosis by almost ten years, passing away in 1966.
Robert Thacker. Born in Mississippi, moved to Tennessee, he completed his junior year at Clinton High School. He moved to Michigan and graduated high school in 1958. He did a short tour in the Army, left and worked at the Ford plant in Michigan. He moved from New Haven to Pontiac, where he was the proprietor of a trucking company. He still lives in Michigan, and happily retired.
Jo Ann Allen. She was born in Clinton, and enrolled in Clinton High School in August 1956. Unfortunately her parents picked up the family and moved to Los Angeles, they didn't want to go through all the turmoil that was happening at the high school. She graduated high school in Los Angeles, in 1958. Jo Ann pursued her dream of becoming a pediatrics nurse, retiring after 40 years of service. Gail married and had two sons and a daughter. After she arrived in Los Angeles she began singing R&B with The Debs. In 1990 she started a solo career, singing jazz.
Bobby Cain. The first black male to graduate from Clinton High School, graduating in 1957. After graduating, he pursued a college education at Tennessee State University, and after graduation he worked at Y-12 National Laboratory in Oak Ridge. He married his wife Margo in 1962, and they had two children. He did a stint in the Army, stationed in Seattle, after he got out he returned to Nashville to reunite with his wife. He worked at Vanderbilt University, became interested in welfare work, which he did until he retired.
William Latham. Born in the area. He started at Clinton High School, but did not graduate, however, he did get his GED. He worked for a local packing company for five years before joining the Army in 1963. During his time in the Army, he was in transportation, after he got out in 1970, he drove a delivery truck in New Jersey, where he met his wife Alice. The couple has four children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren. He lives in Oak Ridge, enjoying his retirement fishing and playing cards.
Minnie Ann Dickie. Her family moved to Clinton when Minnie was eleven. She attended Clinton High School for a short time before her parents moved the family to Knoxville.
Regina Turner. From Atlanta, her parents moved to Clinton. Regina was not happy during her sophomore and junior years at Clinton High School, and moved to Florida to live with her aunt. She graduated high school in Florida. Regina returned to Tennessee, and went to Knoxville Business School. She married and had a son, and worked for a local manufacturing company. She lives in nearby Oak Ridge.
Anna Theresser Caswell. She was born in Tennessee, and attended Clinton High School her freshman year. During her first year at Clinton High School, she required foot surgery, which necessitated the use of crutches, she did not finish schooling at Clinton High School, instead going to night school at Austin High School, in Knoxville. Theresser worked for a local company in Oak Ridge. She is a mother, and grandmother who enjoys the children, playing cards, and cooking. she lives in nearby Claxton.
Alvah McSwain. She was one of twelve children. Alvah started Clinton High School like the other eleven black students. During 1956 the McSwain family was part of a "class action" suit, which start back in 1952, but the family decided to move to Los Angeles in the fall of 1956 to avoid the turmoil that was now happening in Clinton. Alvah did graduate from an L.A. high school, and became a driver for a trucking company. She married, had children, and still lives in Los Angeles.
This museum was well worth the three hours we spent there, and we highly recommend this little gem.
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